HANGING.   Retribution, punishment or barbarity? 

27^th Feb. 1891. Execution of a Murderer. TERRIBLE SCENE ON THE SCAFFOLD. [PRESS ASSOCIATION TELEGRAM.] .NEW YORK, Feb. 27. Some frightful incidents attended the hanging of a murderer at Washington, Penn., early in the morning of the day appointed for the execution. The condemned man procured by some means a piece of iron, which he several times plunged into his throat, but either his strength or his nerve failed, as the self-inflicted wounds were not deep, and he only lost a quanity of blood. Despite this attempt at suicide, the sheriff determined to proceed with the execution. When, however, he entered the cell with the attendants and the clergyman to pre- pare the victim for the gallows, the murderer fought like a demon. It was finally decided, as a last resource, to place him under the influence of opiates, which, however, were only partially successful, and it became necessary to strap the condemned man to a board in order to prevent the resistance which he seemed determined to make on the scaffold. More opiates were administered, and he was bound, apparently helpless, to a plank and carried to the scaffold. Everything was soon ready the trap was sprung, but the combined weight of the plank and the man was too much for the rope, which broke, hurling the miserable man to the ground amid the groans of the spectators already sickened by what they had witnessed. The man, awakened by the shock of his fall, began a fearful struggle to free himself from the cords binding him to the plank. The attendants hurriedly picked up another noose and adjusted it to the neck of the murderer, who was this time finally hanged. The sight was a terrible cne, the wounds in the neck being opened by the pressure of the rope. Blood spurted out in jets, covering the body, board. and the ground. The executed criminal had brutally murdered an entire family.

It is hard to believe that the flag of St David has only been known in Wales for the last couple of decades, There is a large one along the ceiling in St Davids Cathedral with the cinquefoils thereon but hardly any others were seen prior to 1994. 

The Welsh Tartan Company were looking around for a 'brand' to complete the Brithwe Dewi Sant (St David's Tartan)  John Wake, then of the WTC, set out to look for an emblem that could be used commercially or indeed patriotically across Wales on their merchandise. The feeling at the time was that the Union flag did not contain any Welshness, the cross of St George representing Wales as a principality of England. 

The Dean of St David's told Wake that the cinquefoil and the cross were their property and advised help from a London royal official office.

Wake surprisingly was then told the Prince of Wales probably owned the rights to the flag and may not give permission. There was neither outright animosity to the flag being produced and used, nor any enthusiasm. It was decided, after a lawyer was consulted, that the flag could be used as long as there were no cinquefoils on it. A thousand flags were produced without the cinquefoils; they were distributed around Wales and a  PR campaign took place to increase knowledge of the St David's flag. It was ironic to think that even the strongest Welsh speaking areas of Wales were unaware of the the emblem. 

The flags were hung prominently in the Welsh shop in the centre of Cardiff and at other locations. Wake even spoke to the then chief Executive of Cardiff City Football Club who went  with him to the woollen mill at Llanwrtyd Wells to discuss tartans and emblems. The flag was then incorporated into the club logo.  This was later dispensed with as new owners took over.   Within 10 years, the St David's Flag was known and flown across Wales in patriotic use. It was never a flag to usurp the Red Dragon but to complement it, and perhaps to get Wales's own Patron Saint's emblem to proudly fly alongside the emblems of the other nations, St George, St Andrew and St Patrick.

The actual origin of the design is lost in the mists of time.  Some say it was as early as 7th century but that is strongly disputed by scholars.  In fact nobody really can give with any proven conviction to the debate. So prior to 1994 it is the Deans of St Davids who had the original design (with cinquefoils) within their remit. After, without the cinquefoils, it belongs to the nation. 

I don't believe there is an ISLAND OF AVALON but I know where it it.

(Part Two)

Just imagine for a moment you are Geoffrey of Monmouth. The year is 1135ad. You have been ordered by a highly influential Norman Benefactor to write a book on the history of the Kings of Britain. Where do you start? It is the height of the Norman explosion of castles, abbeys, churches and monastery construction. All around you, a metamorphosis and it was taking place in Britain. Nearby Tintern Abbey was nearing completion, Monmouth priory itself, Abbey Dore, Monmouth Church and many others. It was an exciting time for anyone aspiring to get on within the Christian community in a very strongly regulated society. It was even more exciting if you could read or write, hardly anyone else could. To add to that if you could speak several languages your value was exceptional. Geoffrey had all of these attributes. He appeared a very ambitious man and it wasn't long before he was ingratiating himself within the rapidly expanding Norman Christian hierarchy.

So why discuss Geoffrey of Monmouth, a man perhaps you may never had heard of before? Well Geoffrey was the man who first introduced icons as familiar today as they were in the medieval world. Merlin the magician, the sword Excalibur and the legendary island of Avalon. All presented alongside the stories of the fabled King Arthur of the Britons. 'Historia Regum Brittaniae' ('The History of the Kings of Britain') ws his greatest book.

It is not too difficult to find the origins of many of Geoffrey's tales, many emanating from early Welsh (British) folk law and writings, but not all. Avalon (Welsh/British – Ynys Afallon. Latin – as written by Geoffrey in the Historia Regum Brittaniae 'Insula Avallonis') was a new name in the 12^th century. Geoffrey tells us that Arthur was taken there after being mortally wounded by Mordred at the Battle of Camlan(n). The investigator though has to go to another of Geoffrey's books, 'Vita Merlini' to find his fuller description and introduction to the mystical world of Avalon. One thing he states categorically is that to get to Avalon one has to undertake a 'sea voyage'. In fact the association with islands of orchards or apples may go back to Spanish writings and perhaps identified as today's Canary Islands. The Welsh for Island is Ynys and some ancient writings have put Ynys Afallach as Avalon. (The Island of Apples – Afal is apple in Welsh, as no 'v' in the Welsh language)

The name Avalon and it's roots could have emanated from ancient languages of not only Wales, but Ireland, Scotland, Cornwall and Brittany. (Breton) All these lands were linked in various ways, not only by British / Celtic origins but by folk lore and storytelling. The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes were yet to invade so the storytelling was umbillically linked between the aforementioned countries, even prior to Roman times and during.

The Red Book of Hengest, referring to the Mabinogion tales (Welsh/British) appears to contain Welsh folklore stories emanating from the Roman occupation period right up until perhaps the 13^th / 14^th centuries. It was this time the 'Red Book..' was constructed.

Therefore as Geoffrey was the first author to mention Avalon it is to Geoffrey we must go to investigate his knowledge, logic and storytelling prowess. Or in other words, how and where did he find out about Avalon, an island he placed into history from some half a millennia before?

He was a scholar, probably of Breton (Brittany) origins but born in Monmouth. (His father's name was said to be 'Arthur'. (Not proven) It is said he could speak several languages so must have been a brilliant student. Latin, French, Welsh (British) to name three. His education came from his father and his subsequent inclusion into the Monmouth Priory of the Benedictine Monks. The Priory exists today, but heavily altered. Some original pillars of the adjacent original (12^th century) church can be examined and also within the church can be seen a stain glass window dedicated to Geoffrey of Monmouth. (Probably 15^th century) It can be reasonably assumed that Geoffrey knew folk lore and tales from many lands. He could read and write, which was the absolute exception rather than the rule at the time.

It is of course vital with any investigation that the obvious must be proved before any other deliberations take matters further. The simplest explanation is to imagine a Courtroom scene prior to a legal prosecution being commenced. The first question always asked by the Clerk of the Court to the defendant is his or her name, e.g. 'Are you John Albert Frederick Smith?' The man answers in the positive therefore the case proceeds. Thus the initial prong on the enquiry is to ascertain if there really is an island called Avalon then attempt to find where it is. (We can discount much later romantic theories such as inland mystical 'Glastonbury' as that assumption came much later in the 15^th century) If we ascertain that the island of Avalon does not exist then the next step is to construct the mind patterns leading up to the inclusion of the island in early books, especially by our originator, Geoffrey of Monmouth. In other words, 'where did the idea come from?'

Annie Phillips,

Canal Bank, Gabalfa, Cardiff

(Research article by Tommy Page)

To everybody who knew her, Annie Phillips was a woman of mystery. Living alone in an almost derelict cottage on the banks of a long forgotten canal bank in Cardiff, she was an enigma.


To countless children after World War 2, Annie Phillips was a godsend. From this old, almost derelict cottage, she sold sweets and lemonade to children from the Mynachdy, and Gabalfa housing estates.


Annie’s cottage was situated adjacent to the Mynachdy Lock gates, some 130 yards east of the present canal bridge at Western Avenue, Cardiff, where today is situated Excelsior Road, the main route to Tesco’s and other premises on what is now an Industrial estate.


Annie’s address was number 2 Mynachdy Lock Cottage, which was often recorded as Monachty Lock Cottage. She lived their alone from 1953, until her death in 1962.
The Mynachdy Lock itself was Lock No 48 out of a total of 51 locks, on the canal.


The Glamorganshire Canal was built circa 1790, and carried iron, coal and limestone from Merthyr Tydfil to the Sea Lock at Cardiff Docks.


My family moved to Gabalfa in 1951, when I was 4 years old, and as children growing up in this area, we would often walk “down the old canal bank, to Annie’s”


As you ventured under the road bridge, from Western Avenue North, (from the Gabalfa estate) remnants of the canal were clearly visible.
The walls of the actual canal were prominent. All that was missing was the water. !
A narrow towpath winded its way along the side of the canal.
The towpath passed the remains of derelict buildings on the right.
Behind these derelict buildings there was a small wooded and overgrown area, and a small stream that ran from the Gabalfa Estate, and passed Annie’s cottage, before entering the River Taff in what we called the Yankee Woods.
The woods are still there today. (2016)
To the left of the towpath, on the opposite side of the canal was the Super Oil Seals and Gaskets factory. This factory later moved to Llanishen, Cardiff .


Mynachdy Lock itself (adjacent to Annie’s cottage) was quite prominent. As children we played on what was left of the old rotting wooden lock gates. On the opposite side of the Lock stood the gable end of an old cottage wall, together with the foundation ruins of the building.


Alongside this old gable end wall, there were 2 flagstones standing erect .We were told they were old gravestones. They were more likely markers for the barges that used the canal in its heyday, or even markers for pet graves.

As you walked passed Annie’s Cottage, the towpath dipped, and levelled out. To the right was the stream that ran past the cottage, and further on, an old pig sty, where the pigs would often escape, and could be seen running along Gabalfa Avenue, at all hours of the day.
To the left, on the opposite side, was the old British Ropes Company. (Later Excelsior Ropes)


Entrance to Annie’s shop/cottage was via a narrow wooden footbridge that crossed the small stream. Outside her front door were 2 wooden benches where we would sit and eat our sweets, crisps and drink lemonade. Nobody ever entered her home. The front door to the cottage was painted green, and was a stable type door. The top half of the door was often open, and the bottom half secured. To gain Annie’s attention, one only had to shout her name, and then she would shuffle to the door.
Peering into the gloom of the cottage, an old wooden display cabinet was visible, stocked with jars of sweets, liquorice, arrow roots and other confectionary.
Annie also sold cigarettes, either in packets of five or even singularly. As I recall cigarettes were one old penny each.


Annie’s nearest neighbour was old Billy Hill who lived in a tiny cottage behind Annie’s, in a little wooded copse. The house was virtually invisible behind the overgrown foliage.
Every day Billy would visit his sister’s house in Western Drive, Gabalfa, presumably to eat and wash.


These were the only 2 inhabited buildings on this stretch of the former canal. All the others had long been demolished.


In the mid 1950’s Annie was a woman of about 60 years of age, 5’.6” tall, medium build.
She always wore slippers, with her stockings rolled down to her ankles. She often wore a pinafore over her dress. At first sight to young children, she appeared quite intimidating, but was quite a gentle person once you got to know her.
Annie had a gruff Welsh accent, and the smell of cats inside the cottage was evident, and sometimes overpowering.
We would often take old lemonade bottles back to her, and obtain an old penny or twopence in return.


I cannot recall seeing any mains electricity or gas in the cottage, but there may have been.
There was certainly no lighting on the Canal towpath, and at night the area appeared frightening, especially in the long dark winter months.


Occasionally Annie would have a visitor, her son Clarence Phillips. When Clarence was around we were always on our best behaviour.
He appeared to be a tall thin man with horn rimmed glasses. He often admonished us if we were too noisy or truculent.


Annie died at Cardiff in 1962. At the time of her death, her age was recorded as 76. From my research, I believe she may have been only 68 or 69 years old.


Who was Annie Phillips?


Very little is known about Annie’s early life, but there is a wealth of information regarding her husband, who’s name was William George Phillips.

William George Phillips was born at 74 Severn Road, Canton, Cardiff, on 10^th January 1876.
He was baptised at the Parish Church of Saint John the Baptist, Cardiff, on 26^th January that year.
William was the eldest of 11 children born to Joseph Phillips, and Elizabeth Greedy.
Joseph was a native of Gloucestershire, and Elizabeth hailed from Somerset


On the 1911 Census, the Phillips family are residing at Mynachdy Lock Cottage.
Joseph Phillips, (William’s father) is recorded as an invalid, and his wife Elizabeth as a “General Dealer” One of their sons, Arthur is recorded as a “Canal Bargee”


The term “General Dealer” covers a multitude of employments, but it could be that as early as 1911, Mynachdy Lock Cottage was selling sweets and refreshments to the barge workers on the canal.


On the 25 October 1896, William George Phillips married Jemima Jones at Cardiff. Jemima was a native of Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
William and Jemima had at least 5 children together, 3 of whom were born in Penrhiwceiber, Rhondda, Glamorgan to where the family had moved, presumably seeking employment.
William was employed as a collier, in the local colliery.
.
However, William had suffered ill health, and by 1911, had moved his family to Hall Street, Llandybie, Ammanford, Carmarthenshire, where he took up an occupation as an insurance salesman, probably with the mining company.
On the 1911 Census, his wife Jemima Phillips is shown as a confectioner, an occupation later taken up by William’s second wife Annie


In 1915, William joined the army, but was invalided out, due to severe Bronchitis, and periods of sickness.
His wife Jemima died in 1919.


The question remains:- Who was Annie Phillips ?


Annie Phillips
.
The only certainties regarding Annie are the following:-
* Her full maiden name was Annie Mary Smith
* She married William George Phillips at the Gabalfa and
Maindy Baptist Chapel, on North Road, Cardiff on
4^th May 1921. Her age was recorded as 27 years.
(This indicates a birth year of around 1894)
* She was a spinster at the time of the marriage
* Her fathers name was Charles Smith a General Labourer (deceased)
* Annie’s address on the marriage certificate was given as Monarchty Lock,
the same address as her husband William.
* On the marriage certificate, William’s age is given as 45years
* William was a widower, some 18 years older than Annie.


William’s occupation on the Marriage Certificate was recorded as a colliery labourer, although by this time he was clearly unfit to work underground, and had been invalided out of the army due to his ill health.


The witnesses to the wedding included William’s youngest brother, Joseph Thomas Phillips, and a person named Henry Watts. Henry was William’s brother-in-law, having married William’s sister, Charlotte, in 1903.
The Watts family lived nearby in Parkfield Place, Mynachdy, but later moved to the Llandaff North area of Cardiff.

Annie and William only had one child, Clarence Lloyd Phillips, born in Cardiff in 1924. Clarence died in Cardiff in 1993.


It would appear that Number 2 Lock Cottage, Mynachdy, was in the possession of the Phillips family for well over 50 years, until Annie’s death.


William Phillips later became a road sweeper for the local council, and was so employed up until his retirement, during the war years.


William George Phillips died at 2 Mynachdy Lock, Canal Bank on 24 October 1953.
He died of Cerebral Thrombosis and senility. His age was documented as 74 years of age. His actual age was 77 years.


There is no record at all within the Cardiff area of his funeral, nor any details of his burial and /or cremation.
It is possible, and indeed likely, he was buried with his first wife Jemima, in the Carmathenshire area.


Annie Mary Phillips (Nee Smith) died on 20 November 1962 at St David’s Hospital, Cardiff.
Her address was recorded as 2 Canal Bank, Mynachdy Lock, Cardiff.
Annie died of heart failure and senile degeneration.
Death details were provided by her son Clarence.
At this time, Clarence was residing at 80 Appledore Road, Mynachdy, Cardiff.
Annie was cremated at Thornhill, Cardiff and her ashes scattered in the Rose Garden at the cemetery.…
At the time of her death, Annie’s age was recorded as 76 years, which indicates she was born circa 1886. This is at odds with her marriage certificate which indicates she was born circa 1894.
If the marriage certificate is correct, Annie would have only been 68/69 years old when she died.


Shortly after Annie’s death, Mynachdy Lock Cottage fell into ruin. The property was finally demolished in 1965 along with all other remnants of the Glamorganshire Canal.
Nothing is left of Annie’s cottage, nor indeed of the Glamorganshire Canal in this area.
There is no indication at all that the canal ever existed.


Conclusion


It has been almost impossible to correctly identify with certainty, the true identity and parenthood of Annie Phillips. From the small scraps of Information available, and from my research, I believe Annie Mary Phillips (Nee Smith) was born at Llanegwad, Llandeilo Carmarthenshire in 1893. This date roughly ties in with her marriage certificate, as well as the name and occupation of her father.


Her parents were Charles Smith an agricultural labourer, and Jane Davies.
Both Charles and Jane were born in Llanegwad in 1861
Annie was the eldest of at least 3 children born to them.
Charles, her father, died in Llanegwad, in 1904, aged 43 years


It may well be that Annie was acquainted with both William and Jemima Phillips, and knew them when they lived in Llandybie, Ammanford.
We may never know.
Ammanford is only a few miles from Llanegwad and the Phillips family were resident in that area for quite a few years.


I have examined the 1939 United Kingdom Register, which shows William and Annie living at “2 Mynochty Cottage”, with their son Clarence.
William’s date of birth is clear, but unfortunately Annie’s date of birth is not decipherable.
Indeed there appears to be just a scribble, which may indicate that Annie did not know her true date of birth. !
Annie was known to countless people, but few knew anything about her.
The story of a vulnerable old woman living alone in a tiny cottage on a canal bank in a long forgotten area of Gabalfa and Mynachdy had always intrigued me. I was determined that I would one day find out the answer to a puzzling question: Who was Annie Phillips ??


Hopefully I have achieved this goal.


Tom Page…….tom.pag@ntlworld.com

'I don't believe there is an ISLAND OF AVALON but I know where it is'
(Part One)

Over the years knowledge gained, spin spun, interpretations interpreted yet, the debate rages as to the location of the mystical island of Avalon that emanated from the Arthurian legends.

James Bonwick, an Englishman, who moved to Australia, over a century ago wrote the book, 'Irish Druids and the old Irish Religions'. (Still available) He states, 'The Welsh Avalon, or the Island of Apples, the everlasting source of the Elixir of Life, the home of Arthur and other mythological heroes, lay beyond Cardigan Bay, the Annwn of the old sun, in the direction of Ireland'. It is interesting to note the references by Bonwick to Avalon, but, based on a reasonable rationale, can his prognosis on the location of Avalon be believed? If one wanted to prove the validity of this mysterious island 'beyond Cardigan Bay' one could use Bonwick's observation as 'jolly good evidence' but the evidential path that took Bonwick to his conclusion is littered with assumptions.

I, like most people, believes in facts. It is fascinating to read works of esteemed, academic, professorial researchers and authors who examine and attempt to 'prove' certain facts from books written down centuries prior, then going into most expansive of investigations, attempt to prove particular theories. It is the case in point when dealing with Arthurian authors who look at other authors in depth to prove points, even though their target book is constructed a long time after the original subject. A police detective always starts at the beginning of an enquiry, not a convenient or more interesting place further along the interrogatory trail.

The investigation of course is to find out if an Island of Avalon ever existed and if the evidence points to it's existence, where is it? If the evidence reveals that it did not exist, or at least extremely doubtful, then where did the original author get his ideas from? Perhaps he had an island in mind, this we can look at also. To do that we have to get into his mindset in the 12^th century. Not an easy task.

The name Avalon is encountered in every corner of the modern world. The name fronts companies as diverse as financial investments to laundries, from entertainment centres to hotels, from record labels to 'care homes'. It has a powerful resonance seemingly conjuring up feelings of well-being, strength and trustworthiness.
For example many researchers disseminate 'Mort d'Arthur' by Mallory (1485ad) for clues to the original Arthurian legends hoping to rubber-stamp a particular theory or opinion. The book was written almost one thousand years after the alleged events, it is akin to one of us, even in today’s Information Technology era, writing and making up personal and complex stories of hero's and heroine's of the mid 11^th century.
John Matthews who edited a superb compilation of Mallory's 'Mort d'Arthur' said this, 'Beginning with a few brief references in the early poetry of Wales, the burgeoning stories of Arthur developed into a tradition of courtly epics, composed by French 'conteurs' and 'trouveres' in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These were followed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by huge story cycles which built the character of Arthur into a figure of nobility and power, promoting him from an heroic pagan to a mighty Christian King'.  (tbc)

The Lost Lands of Wales in Cardigan Bay.

The 'Byrds' rendition of Pete Seeger's 'The Bells of Rhymney' on their album 'Tambourine Man' have often been taken as a song about the undersea lost church bells, but the words probably refer to Idris Davies' poetry re the destruction of the 'green valley' villages in South Wales by industrialisation. This short narrative is one of two stories of a similar theme attached to Cardigan Bay in Gwynedd. The story is the latter one of the two and explains how a realm was lost to the sea through debauchery and drunkenness. Some say they have seen traces of walls and roadways under the sea at Cardigan Bay, they can be seen at low tide and may have given rise to the legend of the 'Lost Lowland Hundred'.  It is fact though at the lowest tides of the year many people today observe the stumps of trees indicating the Irish Sea was once a forest with today's Wales and Ireland being 'one' land. 

'Many centuries ago in the area where the river Dyfi (Dovey) meets the Irish Sea, a great kingdom stood far out in the low lying land. The kingdom was called Cantref y Gwaelod and its many towns, farms and gleaming cities were protected from the sea by a series of sluices and dams.

The area was ruled over by a Prince called Gwyddno, who had ruled well for many years. In fact he had been so successful that the kingdom enjoyed a great period of prosperity, and the Prince and his subjects were want to overindulge in the more pleasurable aspects of life. As time went on the drinking, parties and wanton debauchery were the talk of the whole of Wales.

During this time the man in charge of up-keeping the solid defences against the sea was called Seithenyn. He was a Prince of Dyfed, and a man of high status in keeping with the importance of his task. At first he was diligent in all aspects of his role, but as time wore on he became addicted to the pleasures of the Court, in a state of drunken stupor most nights as well as much of the day, he began to neglect his duties. In time the dams became weather beaten and crumbling, and the sluices began to stiffen with rust. Many parts of the defences became leaky and with every pounding tide of the winter the dam became weaker.

One man began to notice the decay and the danger from the ever-encroaching sea. His name was Teithryn, and he was in charge of the Northern stretches of the dyke. While his vigilance in tending the Northern dams ensured they were sound his fears were ignored by courtiers, too busy with the nights entertainment to worry about the grumbling of a dam keeper.

Seithenyn also ignored his fears, he was by now a hopeless drunkard and in no fit state to be in charge of such a weighty responsibility.

One day in the depths of winter during the highest tides of the season, Teithynin, who was well versed in weather lore, saw the warning signs of a gigantic storm brewing. That night during the inevitable feasting, Teithryn drank very little and for the last time tried to warn the people of the approaching disaster. They laughed at him and told him to enjoy himself and stop worrying about something that could never happen.

When he knew there was little time left, he went to the safety of high ground, and left the courtiers in their drunken stupor.

When the hurricane came it was the most furious in living memory, it brought before it a huge storm surge which swept over the dam as one great wave. Seithenyn cursing and shouting at the waves ran at the water with his drawn sword in an attempt to send back the waves, he was drowned instantly by a mighty weight of water.

The whole of the kingdom vanished beneath the waves that night, out of the thousands of people only a few escaped. As well as Teithryn the vigilant Northern keeper, Gwyddno and a few of his subjects managed to drag themselves to shore, they lived in poverty for the rest of their lives lamenting their selfish ways'.
Borth on the Irish Sea coast in Wales is the place to observe at very low tides the remnants of 'the lost lands of Wales'. 

The Origins of the word Excalibur

THE ORIGINS OF A WORD

'EXCALIBUR'

Geoffrey of Monmouth (circa 1100 to 1150ad) had no idea what he was unleashing on the world with the introduction of his Arthurian mystical place-names and items.
We can get some idea of Geoffrey's knowledge and storyline composition from a famous icon he has given us, a name that likewise has gone down into world dynamic folklore, 'Excalibur'.
The accounts of the 'Lady of the Lake' holding Excalibur high out of the water, or the sword being pulled from the stone by a great King are deeply ensconced in our minds. The investigation into how, why and when the sword Excalibur was introduced into the Arthurian world is complex in the extreme.
If we go back to Geoffrey's times, the mid 12^th century, perhaps it was not so complex. Most folk tales would have been passed down via word of mouth over the centuries, embellishments to the tales being almost mandatory to enhance the powers of the stories. The church held sway and dominated the medieval mind with it's propaganda and mind control. It was a time where most ordinary people believed in fairies, witchcraft and other such entities. Easy pickings for a the powerful who could read and write, especially church seniors, monks and royalty. Geoffrey needed a powerful practical representation to weave into his Arthurian storyline and the idea of a magic (or at least, symbolic) sword may have and indeed did, fit the bill.

'Caledfwlch', from very early Welsh folklore, seems to have been symbol he chose. The name is similar to Cornish and Breton pronunciations. (It is said that the name Cornwall originated from 'Corn' (Horn, as in Unicorn, therefore, one horn) and Wallis. (The origins of the word Wales, virtually meaning foreigner) At one time Cornwall may have been named as West Wales also, but once again that is subject to debate and certainly not a proven fact. Geoffrey appeared to have 'latinised' the word 'Caledfwlch' to 'Caliburnus' in his story constructions, this fact being generally accepted. The word had emanated from Welsh folk lore commonly known as 'The Mabinogion'. It is not to far a change to reconstruct the word into the French or other languages as Excalibur. (Excalibur...) The early Welsh language dissection of the word 'Caledfwlch' brings us to 'caled' meaning hard and 'bwlch' meaning breach or cleft.
It seems most languages in the world know of an Excalibur sword, the word being spelt in various ways but generally staying within the sounds of the original. If we start the Excalibur tale from the point of the first mention of the the stone legend where King Arthur was successful in removing it, we arrive at the writings of Robert de Boron, a late 12^th century early 13^th century French author. It was Robert who took our tale of Avalon (first mentioned by Geoffrey) and put it in Glastonbury. He also was the first person to turn the grail of Wace's 'Percival de Gallois' into the Holy Grail evolving into the cup that Joseph of Arimathea obtained the blood of Jesus Christ. The stories emanating from Wales were fast becoming the stories of the great French romantic and chivalrous authors who soon attached other wondrous and mystical elements to the narratives.